Foreword
In 2015 I wrote the original “text on the musical modes”, based on my personal understanding and knowledge at the time. Since then, I have taken further lessons and studied the repertoire, and after five years I already felt the need to revise it. Another five years passed as I digested and became aware of my shortcomings, and I finally decided to upload a revised version. Naturally, there will be a need for further improvement in the future, and I hope to make it in good time. I would like to thank my teachers, as well as the members of the rebetiko forum who helped me with their comments (the discussion is below the 2015 text). Of course, I will not satisfy everyone completely—especially not my teachers—because this is a personal perspective, and one oriented towards the bouzouki repertoire in particular.
The melodies of the broader rebetiko tradition (mainly Smyrneiko and Piraeotiko) have already been interpreted and documented on the basis of the makam system or Byzantine music by Mavroeidis, Tsiamoulis and Voulgaris, and in a form more closely adapted to the modes by Andrikos. I consider it ideal, if not essential, for anyone who plays rebetiko to study their books in order to fully understand the modes. At the same time, at least a basic knowledge of Western theory and harmony is required, as is the ability to understand how the two are combined within the repertoire.
In this text I will attempt to place the modes within the Eastern Mediterranean system, while speaking exclusively about equal-tempered instruments and drawing examples mainly from the bouzouki repertoire up to the early laïko period. I will try, as far as possible, to retain and group together the names already used for the modes, while referring to the makams wherever necessary. We should bear in mind that each mode follows its own course in the development of rebetiko and laïko music, which is not necessarily identical to that of the makam from which it originated and after which it was named.
Note: we will use the Western note names for what they actually denote—that is, the names of scale degrees, not the names of frets or frequencies. For example, C is the 1st degree of the scale, G the 5th, and so on.
The Scale
First of all, let us look at the range within which we move: traditional and popular music is essentially vocal, which means that we move within two octaves at most (a double diapason). These two octaves are divided into four regions, each approximately half an octave long (a 4th or 5th interval). The voice’s most comfortable operating area is the central octave, which is divided into the low-middle (introverted) region and the high-middle (extroverted) region. Below the base there is half an octave in the very low (internal) region, and above the top there is half an octave in the very high (explosive) region.
Within this range lies the natural scale, which consists of two disjunct, identical tetrachords T–T–S (C–D–E–F and G–A–B–C). Roughly speaking, the regions therefore extend from low G to C/D, from C/D to middle G/A, from G/A to the C/D octave, and from the octave up to high G.
In its natural form, the third degree of each tetrachord is slightly lowered (E and B, where the semitones occur). This is less than a quarter-tone, but enough to soften the note, which is now approached as a pitch moving within the range from natural to flat. On equal-tempered instruments, depending on the melodic movement (the current base attracts the soft notes) and on the mode (each has its own behaviour), we play either E natural or E flat—and likewise B natural or B flat.
Having established the range and the scale, we can explore the modes that arise from it. In other words, we have different melodic centres/bases, but the same material (key signature), the same limits and the same dominant notes. Depending on the degree serving as the base, the melodic movement is also determined. A low base (C, D, E) produces an ascending movement (Mia omorfi melachrini), a high base (B, high C or high D) produces a descending movement (Alaniaris), while a middle base (F, G, A) produces phrases in both the low-middle and high-middle regions, returning to the centre (Mortissa Smyrnia).
5-/4-/3-note Structures
Melodies generally develop within a perfect fifth, known as a pentachord (5 degrees). This is the most important interval in our music, because it lies at two-thirds of the length of an open string and is the second harmonic (the first distinct note after the octave). It is an interval that sounds complete and neutral to the ear. Its dominant notes are its base and top, though its 3rd degree is also important.
Tetrachords are equally fundamental, and are in fact older than pentachords (which are considered tetrachords with an additional tone). Trichords are the smallest interval that gives us a recognisable sound, although not always a complete one.
Modality
Whenever a melody comes to rest on a degree, we automatically perceive that degree as the base. Any degree of the scale can become a base, producing what is called a “mode”; depending on the base and the intervals that result, it acquires a particular sound and character.
Thus, we have the vocal range as our canvas, the scale as our stepping-stones, the modes that shape the behaviour of the melody, and the 3-/4-/5-note structures as the building blocks that we combine to create makams or modes. Makams refer to very specific characteristics (notes, 3-/4-/5-note structures, melodic movement and behaviour), whereas the modes are a simplified and grouped form of them, enriched with elements of Western harmony.
The Bases and Their Modes
Soft 3-/4-/5-note Structures
C, Rast pentachord
Starting from C, which is the base of the scale, the 5th degree is G. This, then, is the Rast pentachord: C–D–E–F–G (T–T–S–T). We observe that the movable note E occupies the position of the 3rd degree, but here, because of its function as the middle of the pentachord, it remains high (it does not fall to E flat). Since B lies below the base, Rast has a semitone leading note.
D, Uşşak tetrachord
If we now take the 2nd degree (D) as the base, a D–E–F–G tetrachord is formed, with a whole-tone leading interval (C–D) and a soft second degree (T–S–T or S–T–T). This is the Uşşak tetrachord; a Uşşak pentachord is also formed up to A.
Since the scale’s soft degree (E) is the second note of Uşşak, it moves between E and E flat depending on the melodic movement. That is, when the melody rises, we play E natural, while when it descends, we play E flat. It should be noted that what is usually meant by Uşşak on the bouzouki (a relatively fixed E flat) is called Kürdi and is considered hard. Even when a melody has a consistently high E, its behaviour is usually Uşşak rather than natural minor (in the Western sense).
E, Segâh trichord
If we take the 3rd degree of the natural scale (E) as the base, the Segâh trichord is formed (S–T): E–F–G (known as Huzam on the bouzouki, although in reality that is a different mode). The soft note has now become the base, so the leading note rises to support it (D sharp). The melody moves around E and G, with frequent reference to C (the scale’s base). The cadence normally falls on E, but on the bouzouki a cadence on C soon became established instead (along with a C chord for accompaniment).
This completes the first section, from C to G: C Rast pentachord – D Uşşak tetrachord – E Segâh trichord. As mentioned, in the natural scale the same T–T–S tetrachord is repeated from G upwards, so an identical arrangement is created: G Rast – A Uşşak – B Segâh.
However, we must create the semitone leading note in G Rast, giving us F sharp resolving to G. Also, in a Rast setting we have a G Rast tetrachord (G–A–B–high C): the soft note B no longer has the important position it held in the pentachord, so it regains its softness and falls to B flat when the melody moves towards G (descending). When the melody moves upwards towards C or high D, B rises as well.
Correspondingly, we have A Uşşak (Hüseyni), as an A–B–C–D tetrachord with the corresponding behaviour of B (normally B flat, unless the melody rises towards C or high D). In B Segâh, B remains consistently high and is supported by A sharp.
In the low register, we rarely establish bases lower than C, so B is in its natural position (we often use a G Rast 4-/5-note structure as an introduction to C or D). In the high register, we rarely rise above E or F (theoretically the range reaches G, but this is very marginal).
Hard 3-/4-/5-note Structures
Minor/Major
On the 4th degree of the natural scale we find the F major pentachord (Çargâh), F–G–A–B flat–C (T–T–S–T), which often also functions as an F–G–A trichord (T–T), always with a semitone leading note. Here we have a fixed, equal-tempered E and B flat.
Correspondingly, and with the same key signature, a minor third lower we obtain the D minor pentachord (Buselik), D–E–F–G–A (T–S–T–T). The leading note is a semitone in the harmonic form (C sharp) and a whole tone in the natural form. In the makams, the harmonic form is based on C (Nihavend), with a corresponding major trichord on E flat.
A similar pair also appears in G minor (G–A–B flat–C–D), with B flat major (B flat–C–D–E flat–F). Here the key signature is E flat and B flat. These are the expected positions of the soft degrees, so we are still considered to be within the natural scale.
Kürdi
This name has suffered considerably in various accounts of the modes; it is usually called Uşşak, while the name Kürdi is applied to natural minor or even Karcığar. We can think of it as a “heavy” Uşşak because of the E flat, in contrast to Uşşak with its natural E, which tends to fall at cadences.
In the makams, it is the hard 4-/5-note structure from D, with the arrangement S–T–T–T and a relatively fixed E flat (it will rise if the melody demands it, for example with movement towards F). Its fixed stepping-stones allow the melody to move by leaps as well as by transitions to neighbouring degrees, as happens in the soft 4-/5-note structures.
Its subtonic contains the C minor pentachord (C–D–E flat–F–G), while its 2nd degree contains an E flat major trichord (E flat–F–G). Thus, we have another related pair of E flat major/C minor (in the makams this produces Nihavend, which is the harmonic minor).
Examples: Plimmyra, Dyo magkes mes sti fylaki, Sfoungarades, Fer’te mia koupa me krasi
Chords and Harmonisation
Beginning chronologically with Smyrneiko song, the accompanying instrument (oud or guitar) does not play chords. Instead, it maintains a drone with the basic pedal notes (the bases of the pentachords), and also frequently doubles the melody.
In Piraeotiko rebetiko, chords are used as an extension of the pedal notes, with some basic fills to indicate the sections of the song.
In early laïko music, the harmony is reinforced and extended bass lines develop, not only at cadences but also at chord changes.
The harmonisation of the modes was generally done in the simplest possible way (at least until the accompaniment became sufficiently Westernised). All Rast forms are expressed by a C chord (C–E–G), because they are either the C–G pentachord or G–C tetrachords. The same chord also expresses E Segâh. When we move to Uşşak, however, we have Dm, common to the D Uşşak 4-/5-note structure and the A Uşşak tetrachord (and to the D Uşşak trichord in the octave, when it appears). We also have F for the F major 3-/5-note structure and Gm for the G minor 3-/4-/5-note structure. Similarly, minor chords are used for Nikriz and major chords for Hijaz; minor chords are also used for Sabah and Karcığar (regardless of whether it has a 5th-leading-note pattern, it expresses the Uşşak tetrachord). Consequently, we can see that chords provide very little information about the mode, and that there is no real value in distinguishing between “major and minor modes”.
Modes
From the 1st degree of the natural scale (C, or Rast in the makam system), the Rast pentachord is defined, as is the Rast makam, which is simply the development of the 3-/4-/5-note structures arising from each degree of the basic pentachord—in our case, Rast. For some variants (for example, an entry from the 5th or from the octave), makams with other names are defined.
The modes are a more empirical and comprehensive system in which makams sharing the same base and intervals are grouped together. Consequently, the more specific makam names (for example Hüseyni, Mahur, and so on) did not pass into the mode system, although the distinction between the various variants has been preserved in the oral tradition of the rebetes (a distinction that has weakened among laïko bouzouki players). In some particular cases, an exact correspondence between a mode and a makam is retained (for example Karcığar).
The base of a mode is of fundamental importance, because it determines its sound and behaviour. Modes are mainly divided into those based on the 1st degree of the scale (C) and those based on the 2nd degree (D). Modes based on the 3rd degree, E (Segâh and Huzam modes), are closely related to the 1st degree. There are also songs based on the 4th degree, F (Ena karavi apo ti Chio), or on the 5th degree, G (Apefăsisa pouli mou).
Rast Mode
The Rast mode has the C Rast pentachord as its basic structure (C–D–E–F–G). Its secondary structures are the D Uşşak tetrachord (D–E–F–G), the E Segâh trichord (E–F–G), the F major pentachord (F–G–A–B flat–C), and the G Rast tetrachord (G–A–B flat–C), with F sharp as its leading note. The melody may also enter the base through the low G Rast tetrachord (Kantone Stavro), or begin from the octave (Osoi echoune polla lefta). In the final phrase it may turn to the C Nikriz pentachord because of the common base C (Chariklaki, Rast tou teke, O Stavrakas mes ton teke). In general, E is in the high position and B in the low position, unless the melody moves towards the octave. As a mode, it has a grounded quality because it is based on the first degree of the scale.
Chords: C (C Rast pentachord, G Rast tetrachord, E Segâh trichord), Dm (Uşşak), and possibly G as a closing chord.
Examples: Mes tou Vavourla ti Gouva, Magkes karavotsakismenoi (Batis), Kanarini mou glyko, Sinefiasmeni Kyriaki.
Uşşak Mode
Its basic structure is the D Uşşak 4-/5-note structure (D–E flat–F–G), with a whole-tone leading interval. Its secondary structures are the C Rast pentachord on the subtonic, the E Segâh trichord on the 2nd degree, the F major 3-/5-note structure on the 3rd degree, the G minor pentachord on the 4th degree, and the A Uşşak tetrachord (A–B flat–C–D) on the 5th degree. It also features a low G Rast pentachord as an entry to the base (or just the B Segâh trichord), may use Rast on middle G (Vale me stin agkalia sou), or may feature C Rast and the D Uşşak trichord in the octave (Psaras by Mitsakis).
E is quite soft and easily falls to E flat, while B is usually played flat; only when the melody moves around the octave is B natural (equal-tempered) played.
As we can see, because it introduces an important base (D) while retaining the significance of C and G (because of the scale), this is a mode of great melodic richness and variety. It also combines with Sabah and Karcığar, which we will examine later. All of these can be called the Uşşak family, without assigning different names as in makam theory. Uşşak generally produces a plaintive quality because of its minor 3rd and its softness.
Chords: Dm (D Uşşak, A Uşşak tetrachord), C/Cm (depending on the position of E), F (F major 3-/5-note structure), Gm (G minor pentachord).
Examples: Gyftopoula (Batis), Tha spaso koupes, Ergatis (Tountas), Bir Allah, Fovoumai mi se chaso (Pos tha perasei i vradia), Mazi mou den tairiazεις.
Segâh Mode
Its basic structure is the E Segâh trichord (E–F–G), with reference to C (the base of the scale) and a customary cadence on C rather than E. In the bouzouki repertoire, the leading note D sharp had already become established (in older pieces such as To meraklidiko pouli we find natural D). It combines with the G Rast tetrachord, in which B is lowered (B flat) because it is attracted by the temporary base G (with F sharp as its leading note). In some pieces the melody moves to the B Segâh trichord and then closes through G Rast: the arabien tuning pattern of the douzeni: Tha ’rtho nychta toicho-toicho (Genitsaris), Psaras (Mouflouzellis), Strive logia, Seretis. In general, because Segâh ends on the 3rd of the scale, it leaves a sense of anticipation.
Chords: C (E Segâh), G (B Segâh).
Examples: Lachanades, San egyriza ap’ tin Pylo, Sto Faliro pou plenesai, Ta chanoumakia (Stis thalassas tin amoudia), Sakaflias, Kardia orfani.
Alterations
Now, taking the preceding material as our starting point, let us begin altering the scale. The first alteration is making F sharp permanent, combined with a consistently low E (E flat). This creates a tritone, and gives us the so-called chromatic 4-/5-note structures: the C Nikriz pentachord (T–S–3T–S) and the D Hijaz tetrachord (S–3T–S). These take the place of Rast and Uşşak respectively, while initially the rest of the scale (the upper part of the mode) remains unchanged, giving us the basic modes. The tritone creates tension in the modes that contain it, particularly when it is emphasised melodically.
Nikriz Mode
Its basic structure is the C Nikriz pentachord (C–D–E flat–F sharp–G, with a semitone leading note), joined to the G Rast tetrachord, generally with B flat unless the melody moves towards the octave. It may shift to the D Hijaz tetrachord, rarely in rebetiko but often in Epirote or Balkan-influenced pieces (Syrto politiko—Skarvelis). In Ego thelo prigkipessa, the Nikriz motif from G is repeated (5-note structure + 5-note structure).
A particular feature is the use of the four-note diminished chord, which expresses the augmented 4th (F sharp), or also the major 6th (B). The chord degrees do not coincide with the scale degrees, but this does not prevent it from functioning perfectly well in the repertoire—a characteristic example of the Eastern–Western mixture in practice.
Chords: Cm (C Nikriz, G Rast), Cdim (expressing the augmented 4th), possibly G at the close.
Examples: Thermastis/Polytechnitis/Limneiko, etc., Ematha pos eisai magkas, Tha chatho mikri mou.
Niavent Mode (as the Nevşer makam)
It again has the C Nikriz pentachord as its basic structure, but combines it with the G Hijaz tetrachord (produced by altering A flat and keeping B natural; we will use it in other modes as well). As we shall see later, it combines with harmonic minor.
Chords: Cm (C Nikriz, G Hijaz), Cdim (expressing the augmented 4th), possibly G at the close.
Examples: Stin plaka pou epeина, Rantevou san perimeno.
Since the basic C Nikriz pentachord is shared, there are pieces that alternate the tetrachord from G and move from Niavent to Nikriz: Magkes mou symmorfotheite, Nea meraklou.
Hijaz Mode
Its basic structure is the D Hijaz 4-/5-note structure (D–E flat–F sharp–G), with a whole-tone leading interval (and a possible B–C–D close). Its secondary structures are the C Nikriz pentachord and the G minor pentachord (G–A–B flat–C–D). We also encounter a form with the G Rast pentachord when B returns to the high position (Ta leromena t’ aplyta, Kardia paraponijara). It may also feature a semitone leading note (O zontanos o chorismos, Ton andra sou kai mena).
Chords: D (D Hijaz 4-/5-note structure), Gm (G minor), G (G Rast), Cm (C Nikriz). In early laïko music, E flat was also introduced as a replacement for Cm.
Examples: Bouzouki mou diplochordo, Ntymeni san archontissa, Anoixe-anoixe, Ematha polla mikro mou.
The G Hijaz Family
We will now examine the modes that arise from G Hijaz—that is, with A flat altered and B consistently high. The leading note (corresponding to the Rast from which it derives) is a semitone, F sharp. In effect this is soft Hijaz (Araban), but here we are speaking exclusively about equal-tempered instruments. We begin with the G Hijaz 4-/5-note structure (G–A flat–B–C) and the accompanying F Nikriz pentachord (F–G–A flat–B–C); depending on the final note, specific modes are formed.
Huzam Mode
The melody ends on E, so in addition to the G Hijaz tetrachord (with F sharp as its leading note) and the F Nikriz pentachord, we also have the E Segâh trichord (the Huzam pentachord in the corresponding makam). The melody ends on E (or, more rarely, on C), as we saw in the Segâh mode. There are examples that descend into Rast in the low register (Ftochia katirameni, including the rare cadence on low G). Above the octave, G Hijaz continues, giving us the C minor trichord (high C–D–E flat).
In early laïko music, Huzam is understood more as a distinctive major mode, with the harmonic cycle I–IVm–V7 (Otan kapnizei o loulas).
Chords: C (E Segâh trichord, G Hijaz tetrachord), Fm (F Nikriz pentachord), G (G Hijaz pentachord at the close).
Examples: Karadouzeni (Markos), Dervisaina (Segâh introduction), Sakaflias, San eisai magkas kai ntais, Bike o cheimonas.
Karcığar Mode
The melody ends on D, so we have the G Hijaz pentachord, the F Nikriz pentachord, and additionally the D Uşşak tetrachord and the C Rast pentachord. The diminished 5th that is formed is the mode’s characteristic sound, creating the impression that the otherwise very stable relationship between the 1st and 5th degrees is breaking apart. The entire song may use the diminished 5th (Kontrabatzides, Stis Aretousas ti spilia), or, more commonly, the perfect 5th is emphasised first and then broken through G Hijaz (Oraia Thessalonikia) or through F Nikriz (Apelpistika).
In the bouzouki repertoire, Karcığar was also combined with D minor rather than Uşşak (Athinaiisa—Delias, Arrostisa sta kсena makria sou).
Chords: Dm (D Uşşak tetrachord), C/Cm (depending on the position of E), Fm (F Nikriz pentachord), G (G Hijaz).
Examples: To baglamadaki spase, Mesa s’ oraia rematia, Ta niata ta berbantika.
Hicazkâr Mode
Because of the strong relationship (perfect 5th) between low C and middle G, a corresponding C Hijaz pentachord is formed there (C–D flat–E–F–G), with a semitone leading note (B). The melody always begins from high C Hijaz (a trichord because of the upper limit of the voice) and reaches down to low C (the Hijaz pentachord). This entry from such a high point, surpassing the octave, produces great tension and is the characteristic feature of Hicazkâr, which remained present in the post-war repertoire.
Sometimes G Hijaz also becomes a pentachord and extends up to D, so a G chord can appear as well (I gata, introduction to Chronia ston Peraia). In makam-based compositions there is a double Hijaz without an entry from above (Zirgüleli Sûzinâk), but this is not customary in the bouzouki repertoire.
Chords: C (C Hijaz pentachord, G Hijaz tetrachord, high-C Hijaz trichord), Fm (F Nikriz pentachord), B flat minor (as a closing chord, without a corresponding Nikriz pentachord below the base).
Examples: Katadikos (Tsous), Paramana kouna kouna, Ti m’ ofeloun oi anoixeis, Atakti, Paraponiariko (with an introduction containing a Piraeotiko phrase).
Hicazkâr retains its relationship with Huzam, sharing Hijaz on the 5th degree (G), while ending on the 1st (C) and 3rd (E) degrees respectively. This is also apparent in the basic chord, which is C in both cases. They may therefore be combined (Fere mas kapela krasi, Pos perasan ta chronia).
Piraeotiko
Piraeotiko is a distinctive mode that uses G Hijaz together with C Hijaz, but makes F sharp permanent even when it does not function as G’s leading note (the characteristic phrase is E–F sharp–G). In the final phrase, however, F returns to natural. Because of this tonally unjustified behaviour, it is probably a later mode, and the name indeed refers to its origin.
Chords: C.
Examples: Memetis, Enas magkas ston teke mou, Xemagkas.
Sabah Mode
The characteristic alteration of Sabah (based on D) is the diminished 4th degree (G flat) above D Uşşak. This creates the D Sabah pentachord, with the arrangement T–S–S–3T (D–E–F–G flat–A), and at the same time the F Hijaz pentachord on the 3rd degree (F–G flat–A–B flat–C). The melody alternates between these two bases (D Sabah and F Hijaz), while at the close it may use C Rast below the base (with high E). When it rises above F Hijaz, it continues with high C Hijaz (the steps of Hicazkâr). There are cases, however, where the melody descends from octave D all the way to the base.
Sometimes the melody rests on B flat, which is the 4th of F Hijaz (theoretically a B flat Nikriz pentachord, although it is rarely developed and is not harmonised).
The most characteristic tune in Sabah is the Ayvalık zeibekiko; quite a few songs are based on this free-standing melody: To moro—Dousas, Ypoga—Kostis, and others.
Chords: Dm (D Sabah pentachord), F (F Hijaz pentachord), C (C Rast).
Examples: Pseftise pleon o dounias, Aman doktor, Isouna xypoliti, Synachis, Vathia sti thalassa tha peso.
Major–Minor
Let us now look at the Western scales from the perspective of the modes. Instead of the C major–A minor relationship, we take the bases D minor and F major, as we saw earlier (E natural and B flat).
Major Mode/Scale
It functions quite a lot like a scale (hard playing, chordal analysis), but also as a mode (melodic behaviour and combination with other modes). Its basic pentachord is F major (F–G–A–B flat–C), while the main chords use the B flat major trichord (B flat–C–D) and the C Rast tetrachord (octave), as well as the low C Rast tetrachord for entering the base. It usually uses the classical harmonic cycle I–IV–V7, but it may also use the D minor pentachord as a passage to the relative minor, as well as the G minor pentachord. The E in the octave may fall to E flat when the melody descends (Rast behaviour). Sometimes it turns to Huzam (Pame sto Faliro, Kori magissa) or Segâh (O,ti ki an po den se xechno). All these behaviours give it a modal quality, while the two-part melodies incorporate all these changes.
Chords: F, B flat, C7 (Dm, Gm).
Examples: Toutoi oi mpatsοι (Bilantθeria), with a turn to D minor, Varka gialo, Modistroula, Zousa monachos choris agapi, Ta perix, To parapono tou aliti, Se fino akroγiali.
Minor Mode/Scale
Its foundation is harmonic minor; we will consider D its base. Over the main chords, we have the D minor pentachord (semitone leading note), the G minor (or Nikriz) pentachord, and the A Hijaz tetrachord (A–B flat–C sharp–D), which is repeated below the base.
While we are in harmonic minor, a semitone leading note appears in A Hijaz—in other words, the attraction of G sharp, which creates a D Nikriz pentachord and is called Niaventi in the modes. When we rest on the augmented 4th (G sharp), a Ddim chord may enter (Minore tou teke).
In the upper half of the octave, we may turn to natural minor with the A Kürdi tetrachord (A–B flat–C–D). This obviously does not produce Niaventi, but the cadence on the base still uses A Hijaz and an A7 chord (Apokliros, Pireotissa). There are also a few songs written exclusively in natural minor (Kapileio by Mitsakis, To pitsiriki).
When the melody moves to F major, it usually behaves as though F were a Rast base. This is generally apparent in the Rast tetrachord on the upper C, with a semitone leading note (B) and a lowered 3rd (E flat) (Chasapis, Arampatzis). Sometimes A Segâh appears—the attraction of G sharp from Niaventi (Ta ble parathyra)—and, more rarely, even Huzam (Mi mou xan φύgeis pia).
When moving from the tonic (D) to the fourth degree (G), a D7 chord is introduced, while the basic pentachord simultaneously changes from minor to Hijaz—that is, it is treated as a temporary move to G harmonic minor (Charamata i ora treis, Ti simera ti avrio). At first, the relative major chord was also inserted: Dm–F–D7–Gm (Ta manavakia). The same happens when changing to F, preceded by C7. Thus the minor cycle with successive V7–I resolutions was adopted: Dm–D7–Gm–C7–F–Gm–A7–Dm (Pente magkes, Chatzi-bachtsé, Ta ziliarika sou matia).
This trio—harmonic minor, natural minor and Niaventi (together with the move to major)—constitutes the minor mode (or Niaventi). The changes take place very smoothly from phrase to phrase, so there is no need to treat them as separate cases. Minor as a mode is an exceptionally interesting mixture: we observe that some Western influences pass through an Eastern filter before being applied. It has complete harmonisation and two-part melodies alongside great plasticity in the melody, captured ingeniously in its harmony.
Note: The structure of harmonic minor is more familiar when we view it from its base on C, as in the Nihavend makam: the C minor pentachord/E flat major trichord (from D Kürdi), as well as C Nikriz with G Hijaz and a semitone leading note (F sharp), as in the Niavent mode. However, for simplicity and to connect it with natural minor and F major, we examine it from D.
Chords: Minor cycle Dm, Gm, A7 / Major cycle F, B flat, C / D7→Gm, Ddim (G sharp).
Examples: Nostimo trelo mikro mou, O Antonis o varkaris, Se gelasane, Chorisame ena deilino, Apopse m’ egkateleipses, Mazi sou xemyalistika.
Hijaz Combined with Harmonic Minor
These two modes share the same 4-/5-note structures from different bases: D Hijaz combines with G minor (D Hijaz 4-/5-note structure, C Nikriz pentachord, G minor pentachord). The range begins on D and often exceeds the octave. Thus a number of pieces were written that move from Hijaz to minor (Eipa na sviso ta palia) and from minor to Hijaz (the introduction to Strose mou na koimitho, Efialtis).
Starting from this relationship, two-part melodies were widely applied in Hijaz (Glykovradiazei ki o dounias, Pasatempos). The melodic variants of minor are also observed: G Nikriz (with C sharp), and even natural F in the octave as G natural minor. To express these behaviours, the harmony of minor was added: a major chord on the 2nd degree as a replacement for the minor chord of the subtonic (E flat instead of C minor) (Afou m’ aresei na gyrno, Kardia paraponijara), a passage with an applied dominant on the 4th degree (G7–Cm) (Iliovasilema sosto), and even the F and B flat chords (Souroppo me synnefia), as well as the sequence Gm–F–E flat–D(7) (Plousiopaido).
Afterword
This has been a summary of the modes, interpreted mainly on the basis of their Eastern origins and secondarily on the basis of their Western development. By studying the repertoire, we see that even in the most Western compositions, rebetiko continues to function modally.
I have left out various combinations of 4-/5-note structures, makams and modes that occur in very many rebetiko (or rather Smyrneiko) pieces, partly because this would require the entire theory of the makams, which is not the purpose here, and partly because most variations and combinations can be recognised and interpreted on the basis of these fundamental elements.
I hope this text will prove useful and contribute to viewing the modes as primarily modal rather than as matters of scale and harmony. Questions and corrections are welcome, in the hope that a fruitful dialogue will be repeated, as it was a decade ago.